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Biochar (BC), the carbon-rich by-product resulting from pyrolysis of biomass, is used for bioenergy and increasingly as a soil additive for carbon sequestration and soil improvement. However, information about the effects of BC on forest productivity and reforestation success, especially on boreal and temperate forest soils, is scant. We examined the effects of two BC types (Canadian and Finnish) added in proportions up to 60 vol.% into a common alluvial silty soil on the growth of transplanted Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) seedlings in a growth chamber. We found no marked differences in seedling growth among the binary growing media mixes used. Seedling growth attributes (seedling height, terminal shoot growth, root volume) differed consistently only between the BC types in the highest proportion used. The terminal shoot growth differed overall among the two BC types. These results suggest that BC may be applied into mineral soils without detrimental chemical effects on tree plantation success. Our results provide foundation for further field research on the longer-term impacts of adding BCs to boreal forest soils.

Protocols for the in vitro propagation of two endangered plant species in the Czech Republic, Gentiana verna L. and Jurinea cyanoides (L.) Rchb., were established. In G. verna, the induction of organogenesis on vegetative shoots was successful on the basal 6% agar WPM medium with 200 mg.l^-1of glutamine, 200 mg.l^-1 of casein hydrolysate, 30 g.l^-1 of sucrose, 0.2 mg.l^-1 of BAP, and 0.1 mg.l^-1 of IBA. The multiplication of primary explants was achieved on 6% agar basal MS medium with the same concentrations of substances mentioned above. In J. cyanoides, the induction of organogenesis and multiplication of its vegetative shoots were successful on MS medium with the same concentration of added substances used in G. verna. On the basal MS medium of 1/3 concentration with 3 mg.l^-1 of IBA 70-75% rooting efficiency of G. verna microcuttings and 40% rooting efficiency of J. cyanoides microcuttings were reached. The mortality during acclimatization did not exceed 20% for G. verna and 25% for J. cyanoides.

The aim of this study is to identify a period of time over which smaller, less costly tree transplants can reach the height of larger tree transplants and thus offset their performance. The following Central European native tree species were used: Quercus robur L., Carpinus betulus L., Fraxinus excelsior L., Acer campestre L., Acer pseudoplatanus L., Tilia cordata Mill. and Prunus avium L. In the period after planting, the best growth was observed for small tree transplants. These transplants reached the height of the medium-sized tree transplants for all species except C. betulus. However, the large transplants of A. campestre, F. excelsior and P. avium were still significantly taller than the medium-sized transplants ten years after planting. In contrast, slow growth was observed for the large tree transplants of C. betulus and Q. robur. During the monitoring period, the height of the medium-sized transplants of C. betulus even exceeded the height of the large transplants of this species. These differences suggest that the differences in the establishment rates of individual species are reflected in the growth rates of their plantations during longer periods after planting.

Soil properties can be affected by heavy equipment used for skidding but these impacts vary greatly with site conditions and operational practices. We assessed the effects of ground-based skidding on site disturbance and soil physical properties. We also tested the effects of skid trail slope and traffic frequency on soil compaction, total porosity, and moisture content. On average, about 30% of all harvested area was disturbed to varying levels. Intact forest floor (undisturbed) and light slash were the dominant surface conditions, covering an average of 68.9% of harvested area. Deep disturbed soils accounted for only just over 1.1% of observations. Results showed that dry bulk density, total porosity and moisture content were affected considerably on skid trails by traffic frequency and skid trail slope. Measurements of soil properties in the surface layer (0-10 cm) showed that bulk density is 57% higher and total porosity is 31% lower on the skid trail compared to the undisturbed area. Average moisture content has been measured as 35% on the skid trail versus 47% in the undisturbed area.

We summarized development and dynamics of natural regeneration in mountain spruce forests in areas affected by bark beetle gradation in the Šumava National Park. Detailed measurements of the regeneration were carried out using Field-Map technology (www.fieldmap.com) on ten permanent research plots. Research plots included the forests with decaying tree layer, stands in partial decline and stands with a generally healthy, or only partially damaged tree layer. Differences in rates of regeneration are very significant between the particular types of plots, especially in the youngest age class. Differences are also evident in the seedling height under varying treatments. The highest numbers of recruits (9,880 per ha) were found under intact overstorey canopies, while the fastest height growth occurred on clearcuts. This study also investigated and evaluated artificial regeneration done in the past.

In order to facilitate the use of biodiversity indicators in policy making at the country level, a few and well-established indices should be suggested. Promising candidates include biodiversity-related indices of the Convention on Biological Diversity; their current use and performance are evaluated through a Hungarian case study. Especially indices of the ecosystem level have already been in use, but they are not necessarily useful measures of the state of biodiversity in their current form. For example, ecosystems suggested globally for monitoring (forests and marine habitats) are not present in all the countries, thus the way of ecosystem selection should be standardized, not the actual ecosystem types. Besides the information on the extent of some selected habitats, the original cover should also be considered to evaluate the present situation. Recommendations are demonstrated in the case study. With the use of existing data, the applicability of certain indices can be improved, but in the long run, ecosystem-based indices of the natural capital should be favoured.

To avoid ecosystem degradation, forestry planning needs to be based on current information about the state of forest environment. Phytoindication is an inexpensive tool that allows tracking the environmental change at fine spatial scales. The present study uses this approach to assess changes within abiotic conditions of forests in the area of the Moravian-Silesian Beskids Mts. (Czech Republic). Phytosociological relevés collected in 2013 at 118 permanent plots were compared with records from the 1960s and 1970s. The changes were expressed using average Ellenberg's Indicator Values and units of the Czech Forest Typological System. Persisting soil acidification was detected, and linked to industrial deposition and planting of Norway spruce beyond its natural range. Conversion towards a higher share of broadleaved species was suggested to support soil recovery.

We conducted to describe methods used to differentiate the zones of juvenile and mature wood in stems of coniferous species and to present the importance of good identification of the shares of both types of wood to ensure a rational use of the raw material and final quality of wood products. This study describes in more detail a novel method to separate the juvenile and mature wood tissue in stems of European larch using cluster analysis in the form of the k-means algorithm. Moreover, guidelines were also shortly described for forest management which could result in a reduction of the share of juvenile wood in stems of forest trees.

Litterfall, an important component of the nutrient cycle in forest ecosystems, was measured for 9 years in young oak stands on two localities classified as beech-oak climax (Fageto-Quercetum). We estimated that about 4 Mg of dry mass per hectare fell each year. Nutrient content in the litterfall represents annually per hectare approximately 40-55 kg of nitrogen, 2-3 kg of phosphorus, 7-16 kg of potassium, 41-73 kg of calcium and 6-7 kg of magnesium. The amount of litterfall is positively correlated with stand basal area and with the death of suppressed tress with small crowns. We found a positive correlation between annual litterfall and the sum of precipitation and a negative correlation between annual litterfall and temperature in summer.

Climate change, air pollution and global challenges. Understanding and perspectives from forest research R. Matyssek, N. Clarke, P. Cudlin, T.N. Mikkelsen, J.P. Tuovinen, G. Wieser, E. Paoletti Developments in Environmental Science 13. Elsevier Ltd., Oxford, 2013 622 pages, ISBN 978-0-08-098349-3. € 142.31.

Patterns of biomass allocation were determined for seedlings of five provenances of Quercus castaneifolia from west to east of the Hyrcanian forest along a rainfall gradient. Experimental design was executed under controlled conditions at seven different light levels (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 100% full light). We quantified the biomass allocation patterns to leaves, stems and roots. For all provenances total mass increased with irradiance at low light levels, reaching an optimum at an intermediate level but decreasing at a high irradiance level. As results show, in drier provenances and at high light levels, the seedlings invest more biomass into root mass to facilitate water uptake and to alter their leaf size to prevent overheating. In contrast, at wetter provenances and low light levels, towards increased light interception, more biomass is allocated proportionally to leaves and the stems but, accordingly, less to roots. The leaf to root ratio (L/R) was negatively correlated with light, with high correlation at wetter provenances compared to drier ones. In contrast, the relationship between the root to shoot (R/Sh) ratio and light was positively correlated with light, but it was weak at drier provenances and became gradually stronger at wetter ones. Such relationships indicated that chestnut oak seedling growth strategies are different along a rainfall gradient to irradiance levels. Despite similar growth conditions in the greenhouse, different growth strategies may be the result of genetic adaptation to the ecological conditions, especially when precipitation regimes prevail in the native habitat.

As the climate continues to change, gaps in our understanding of how the altered environment will affect forest hosts and their pathogens widen. In some areas pathogens thought to be present for centuries are changing their behaviour. Dothistroma needle blight caused by the fungus Dothistroma septosporum in northwest British Columbia (BC), Canada, is a good example. In this area both the pathogen and the host, lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia), are considered native species, but here Dothistroma has been responsible for killing mature host trees, which is unprecedented. A plausible link between warmer, wetter summers and directional climate change has been suggested as the primary driver. Those environmental conditions appear to be affecting the host/pathogen relationship for other diseases in the neighbouring central interior of BC including comandra blister rust (Cronartium comandrae). Disrupted host/pathogen relationships tend to favour the short-lived more adaptable pathogens rather than their long-lived hosts. These changes in forest health have not been well accounted for in fields of forest science that have been built on stability and predictability.

Anew approach to forestry that increasingly values non-timber forest functions brings new interest and value also to coppice forests. A case study in the Voskop nature reserve located in the Český kras Protected Landscape Area was focused on a comparison of the timber production of individually growing trees and in multistemmed trees resprouting after cutting (stools). We recorded tree ecological characteristics of trees such as existence of stem cavities, whether the tree grows individually or from a stool and whether or not the tree is broken, dead or has a dying crown. In total 2,670 trees were sampled on a 1,875 ha sample plot. The main tree species forming coppice stands are Quercus petraea and Carpinus betulus. The total stock volume of only 136 m³.ha^-1 is very low at 84 years of age. The stock volume of individually growing trees is 84 m³.ha^-1 and the stock volume of trees in stools is only 52 m³.ha^-1 although the number of individually growing trees is lower.

Most of the vegetable crops are known to depend upon arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AM) symbiosis for growth and development, since AM fungi provide nutrients and water in exchange for photosynthates. The influences of AM fungi (Glomus intraradices (G) and Acaulospora laevis (A)) with Trichoderma viride (T) and Pseudomonas fluorescens (P) alone and in combinations on growth, mycorrhization, chlorophyll content, nutrient uptakes, and yield of broccoli plants were studied in pot culture under glasshouse conditions. The obtained results demonstrated that the single inoculation of broccoli plants with T. viride significantly increased the above ground fresh weight, root length, chlorophyll b, head diameter, root phosphorus, and shoot nitrogen in comparison to uninoculated control plants. On the other hand, consortium of G+A+T+P significantly increased plant height, above ground dry weight, root fresh weight, chlorophyll a, head fresh weight, and root nitrogen content. Similarly, G+T showed maximum leaf area, and P alone showed maximum uptake of shoot phosphorus. Whereas when P was supplied along with T, early flowering was recorded. AM fungal colonisation was negligible and only root tips were found infected in G or A treated plants which confirms low dependency of broccoli on AM fungi.

In our routine surveys for the powdery mildew disease in greenhouse tomatoes, we detected a new pathogen that forms pseudochains consisting of 12 conidia. To identify the original plant that dispersed this pathogen, wild plants infected with powdery mildew were monitored. The pathogen on Japanese mallotus, Mallotus japonicus, produced a similar type of pseudochain, and conidia were infectious to tomatoes. Inversely, the conidia on the tomato leaves infected M. japonicus. Infectivity assays and internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-based phylogenetic analyses indicated that the two pathogens on the tomato and M. japonicus were identical. These results suggest that the conidia on M. japonicus can be transmitted to greenhouse tomatoes. This work documents the ecological transmission of conidia between wild plants and greenhouse tomatoes

In 2014, the journal Plant Protection Science (PPS) completes 50 years of publication (1965-2014). However, its roots extend back to the year 1921. Today, it is an international scientific journal focused on all aspects of plant protection sciences, fully published in English. This occasion offers a fitting opportunity to describe some of the most important historical stages of the journal's development. In our brief historical overview, we summarise the changes in journal title, chief-editors, and editorial policy during the last fifty years, and with an examination of its importance, scope and readership. We present analyses of the journal's development, some for the entire period of 1965-2013, while others are limited to more recent decades. The journal's present place among the world's scientific journals is documented by analyses in the international citation databases, BIOSIS CI, SCOPUS, and WOS. An analysis of three particular citation databases were made in October 2013, while the overall period 1998-2013 was conducted from All Databases/Thomson Reuters in March 2014. PPS is also included in other, important technical-literature databases, including Czech Agricultural and Food Bibliography, AGRIS/FAO database, AGRICOLA, CAB Abstracts, Current Contents, and Zoological Abstracts. Information about all of them is available in Ulrich's WEB database. In the final part of this paper, we summarise some recent achievements of the journal, and discuss some key topics related to its future development.

In experiments using Petri dishes in the laboratory and pots in a greenhouse and climate chamber, we examined the influence of seed treatment on emergence of poppy. Four types of fungi (Alternaria spp., Dendryphion penicillatum, Fusarium spp., and Penicillium spp.) were detected on poppy seeds, with the highest infection rate being 72% for D. penicillatum. Surface disinfection decreased infection rate chiefly in D. penicillatum (by 32%) and in Alternaria spp. (by 16%). Seed treatment increased emergence by 9-10% in laboratory experiments but by only 0-6% in greenhouse experiments. Temperature plays an important role in emergence. In climate chamber experiments at a stable temperature of 12°C, the seed treatments increased emergence by 8-16%.

Seedlings of Trifolium pratense L. cultivars were mechanically inoculated with Czech isolates of Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV), Clover yellow mosaic virus (ClYMV), Clover yellow vein virus (ClYVV), Red clover mottle virus (RCMV), White clover mosaic virus (WClMV), and a newly discovered member of the Cytorhabdovirus genus. WClMV infected 75.4% of clover seedlings; cv. Rezista was the most susceptible (93.3%), while cv. Fresko was the least susceptible (58.3%). RCMV infected 59.6% of plants; the most susceptible was cv. Tempus (77.6%), the least susceptible cv. Sprint (38.3%). While WClMV infected a higher number of seedlings, RCMV revealed more severe symptoms on affected plants. On the basis of ELISA and RT-PCR results, no cultivar was susceptible to mechanical inoculation with ClYMV and cytorhabdovirus. Moreover, cvs Fresko and Sprint were not susceptible to ClYVV and AMV, respectively.

The spread pattern of Abutilon theophrasti (velvetleaf) in Austria, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia was analysed based on an exhaustive distribution data set (389 records). Cumulative number of all records showed a continuous increase since its introduction in the 19^th century and > 1970 its spread gained momentum with an exponential increase > 2000. In fields, the species remained rare until 2000. Since then, A. theophrasti has invaded fields much more frequently (78% of all records in fields > 2000) and it was mainly found in sugar beet and maize. Approximately a total of 188 000 ha of the agricultural area are currently at risk of being invaded. Given the on-going spread into fields, the results provide evidence that A. theophrasti may cause serious impacts. Control measures should focus on the prevention of spreading seeds and the establishment of new foci.

Four peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) cultivars (cvs. TPT-1, TPT-4, JL-24 and TMV-2) were grown in open-top chambers at 350 and 600 µmol CO₂/mol in soil amended with 0 (control), 50, 100 and 200 mmol solutions of NaCl. The net photosynthetic rate (P_n), stomatal conductance (g_s), transpiration (E) and dry biomass of leaf, stem and root were measured on 60 days after sowing. The plant growth and photosynthesis increased in both NaCl treated and control plants with elevated CO₂. The g_s and E decreased under elevated CO₂ and the CO₂ effect was highly significant under salt stress mitigating the adverse effect on these components in all the four cultivars tested. A positive correlation was observed between P_n and dry biomass under elevated CO₂ and salt stress. Enhanced CO₂ helps to increase growth and photosynthesis in peanut cultivars and it ameliorates the adverse effects induced by salt stress.

The aim of the study was to collect seeds of wild oat from the fields where, in spite of the applied herbicides, the weed is very poorly controlled, and to determine under greenhouse conditions if any resistant biotypes are present. In the years 2008-2011, 34 samples of wild oat were collected from fields where the weed was poorly controlled. The biotypes were analyzed in greenhouse experiments to determine if they are resistant to herbicides. Among five resistant biotypes three of them (R3, R4 and R5) were resistant only to iodosulfuron and mesosulfuron, and biotype R2 - only to propoxycarbazone-sodium. Biotype R1 exhibited multiple resistance to iodosulfuron + mesosulfuron and pinoxaden. The use of sulfometuron proves that the mechanism of resistance of two biotypes of wild oat (R1 and R4) to acetolactate synthase inhibitors is associated with target-site mutation. The curve of biotypes R3 and R5 controlled with iodosulfuron + mesosulfuron shows a relatively low resistance index and control of those biotypes with sulfometuron indicates a metabolic resistance.

This study aimed to separate the respective contributions of root and microbial respiration to soil respiration in a rape field in Southwest China. The soil respiration was measured with a closed chamber technique and a regression method was used to apportion root and microbial respiration. Microbial and root respiration ranged from 70.67 to 183.77 mg CO₂/m²/h and 21.99 to 193.09 mg CO₂/m²/h, averaged 127.16 and 116.66 mg CO₂/m²/h during the rape growing season, respectively. Root respiration coefficient ranged from 0.41 to 5.39 mg C-CO₂/g C/h and was negatively correlated with root/shoot ratio, aboveground and belowground biomass, but positively correlated with root N content. The contribution of root respiration to soil respiration averaged 44.2%, ranging from 14.5% to 62.62%.

A long-term experiment was used to evaluate the effects of different nutrient management practices on the distribution of soil organic N fractions and their contribution to N nutrition of a rice-wheat system. Continuous rice-wheat cultivation for 13 years without any fertilization was unable to maintain total soil nitrogen level to its original level and resulted in a decrease at 8.3 mg N/kg/year. Likewise, amino acid N, amino sugar N, ammonia N, hydrolysable unknown N, total hydrolysable N and non-hydrolysable N decreased by 37.2, 29.6, 33.7, 10.4, 26.6 and 20.4%, respectively over their initial status. However, application of inorganic fertilizers alone or in combination with organic manures led to a marked increase in total N and its fractions. The increase in total N with the application of farmyard manure, press mud and green manure along with inorganic fertilizer over treatment with inorganic fertilizer alone was 23.1, 34.4 and 7.0%, respectively. These results imply that integrated use of inorganic fertilizers with organic manures represent a sound practice for sustaining N reserves in soil. On average, amino acid-N, amino sugar-N, ammonia-N and hydrolysable unknown-N constituted about 27.9, 10.7, 28.7 and 32.7% of the total hydrolysable-N, respectively.

A study was conducted to investigate the influence of sodicity induced changes in soil physical properties on paddy root growth in the normal agriculture, semi-reclaimed and sodic soils. The root growth (length, length density, biomass and distribution pattern) were unfavourably affected by the soil physical properties (bulk density, soil aggregate stability, available water content, hydraulic conductivity and soil water retention potential) in the case of sodic soil. The microbial biomass carbon, bacterial, fungal population and dehydrogenase activity showed the lower values in the case of sodosol compared to the normal soil. These soil biological properties tend to sustain paddy root growth in normal and semi-reclaimed soils. Principal component analysis revealed that soil physical properties accounted for 98.2% of total variance in root growth. The study revealed that salt stress induces changes in soil physical properties limiting paddy root growth in the salt affected soils. It is important to reclaim sodosols to alleviate salt induced physical stress for optimum paddy root growth.

The effects of mineral and organic fertilization on the contents of Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, B and Mo in soil and in the soil solution as well as on availability of these elements for crops were investigated in the long-term field trial. The highest contents of Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu in soil and soil solution were observed in the treatment with the lowest pH (NPK). In this same combination the content of B and Mo was the lowest. The concentration of Zn, B and Fe in the soil solution significantly increased under farmyard manure application. Liming significantly decreased contents extractable by 1 mol/L HCl forms of Mn and Zn and significantly increase the content of Mo in the soil. Regardless of fertilization applied, microelement concentrations in the soil solution are sufficient for fulfilling nutritional needs of plants cultivated during the trial.

Nitrogen plays a vital role in the growth, development and nutritional quality of Chinese chive, which is an important leafy vegetable. The effects of improved Hoagland nutrient solutions on the nutritional quality and physiological characteristics of three Chinese chive cultivars (Saisong, Pingjiu No. 4 and Pingjiu No. 8) were investigated by modulating the ratio of nitrite nitrogen (NO₃^--N) to ammonia nitrogen (NH₄⁺-N). Improved Hoagland nutrient solutions with NO₃^--N to NH₄⁺-N ratios of 50:50 and 75:25 could effectively promote the accumulation of soluble protein, soluble sugar, vitamin C and proline; decrease the malondialdehyde content; and induce the superoxide dismutase and peroxidase activities of the three cultivars. It is strongly suggested that NO₃^--N to NH₄⁺-N ratios of 50:50 and 75:25 improve nutritional quality and promote growth and are thus suitable for Chinese chive growth under hydroponic culture.

Changes of soil organic matter (SOM) parameters were investigated in a haplic Luvisol with medium-heavy texture. Soil samples were taken from several layers at minimum (MT) and conventional (CT) tillage plots of a field experiment in Sitzenhof (Germany). All cultural practices except for tillage (crop rotation, fertilizing, protection measures, etc.) were identical over the whole time of the experiment. The concentrations of oxidizable carbon C_ox and its constituents (humic acids (HA), fulvic acids (FA), and hot-water soluble carbon) are comparable in layers 15-20 cm in both variants. In 0-15 cm and 30-55 cm layers, these concentrations were higher in the MT variant. A similar trend was observed in the colour quotient values of humic substances Q4/6, which indicates increasing condensation of humus substances (HS) at deeper layers in both variants, and it is also confirmed by a humic to fulvic acids ratio HA:FA. Concentrations of SOM fractions were higher (except 15-20 cm layers) in the MT than CT treatment throughout the profile, especially below the 30 cm depth. The SOM did not accumulate markedly in the surface layer of long-term MT treatment.